IB Psychology: Models of Memory – Cognitive Approach to Behavior 101 & In-depth (Also contains insights on more effective overall studying methods ;3)

Under the cognitive approach to behavior, memory is a topic that possesses huge significance! AKA something we all need to ace our IB exams hehe :’)… Anyways here we’ll discuss the different processes and models of memory, along with a couple of related studies. This blog is not exclusive to only psychology students as it may also give insight to potentially more effective study methods! Now let us begin, shall we?

The 3 Processes of Memory

Memory is a cognitive process used to encode, store, and retrieve information

1. Encoding: Taking stimulus (Simpler term: information) from the environment, which is then ‘encoded’ into our brains. Stimulus is usually visual, but can be any of the five senses.
2. Storage: Once information is encoded it has to be stored until it is required at a later time. There are two factors:
   • Duration: Length of time information is stored
   • Capacity: How much information can be stored
3. Retrieval: Recalling by using ‘cues’ to remember items you have stored.

The Multi-Store Memory Model!!!

As you can see from the figure above, there are three different memory stores (Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory).

• In order for information to move to the next memory store, certain conditions have to be met.
• Each memory store is characterized by Duration and Capacity.

1. Sensory memory store:
   • Temporary storage of information stimulus taken in… which does not process information
   • Duration: Very short (Let’s hope the things we study far surpasses this memory store… :))
     • About 0.25 seconds for visual stimuli and 2-5 seconds for phonetic (sounds) stimuli (Oh lord that is so less).
   • Capacity: Very large, but limited by perception
   • Condition: Attention
     • Attention is required for information to transfer into short-term memory store.
     • Otherwise, if it does not catch our attention, it fades away instead of moving to the next memory store.
2. Short-term memory store:
   • Duration: Short (We still need to surpass this memory store for our study revisions 🙁 )
     • 20-30 seconds (Peter & Peterson, 1959)
   • Capacity: Small
     • 5-9 chunks
     • A chunk is a meaningful unit. Such as:
       • A group of letters – example: IBDP
       • A group of words – example: Four score and seven years ago
     • According to the model, information in STM is encoded phonetically (by its sound) and/or visually.
     • Condition: Rehearsal 
       • If information is rehearsed, it is then transferred to the long-term memory store.
       • Otherwise, information is lost.
3. Long-term memory store:
   • For storing large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time (Galotti, 2008)
   • Duration: Potentially a lifetime (Now this! Is where you want information to enter when studying)
   • Capacity: Potentially infinite
   • Information in LTM is processed semantically (by meaning).
   • However, memory loss can occur in LTM due to several factors: 
     • Interference occurs when different memories clash with one another and become indistinguishable.
     • Decay refers to how memories fade with time. Old memories are difficult to remember without periodic rehearsal
     • Retrieval failure, sometimes known as cue-dependent or context-dependent forgetting, which basically means that a memory can’t be retrieved because of some missing stimulus, cue, or context (which was probably used to encode the memory in the first place).

Supporting studies on the multi-store memory model

Sperling (1960):

• Aim: To test the existence of iconic (Visual) memory (Part of sensory memory).
• Method: Experiment
• Procedure & Participants: Around 20 undergraduate students from Princeton University. They were briefly viewed a grid of letters (12 letters). Then, were asked to recall as many letters as possible. There were two conditions:
  • In one condition, participants were asked to recall the letters immediately after the grid disappeared
  • In the other condition, a delay was introduced between the grid and recall task
• Results: Through the use of various statistical tools, researchers proposed that participants could recall a significantly larger amount of letters when the time between presentation and recall was immediate, which suggests the existence of the sensory memory
• Strengths:
  • A controlled laboratory setting allows for accurate manipulation of variables
  • Replicability: if a study’s results can be replicated by independent researchers, it provides evidence for the reliability of the findings
• Limitations:
  • Limited sample size and homogeneity of participants may suggest low generalizability
  • Task complexity: Remembering a brief display of letters is a simple task in comparison to many realistic memory tasks, which may not encompass the complexities of the real-world human memory processes
• Ethical considerations/concerns: No major ethical concerns. Participants were provided informed consent, debriefed, and protected from mental/physical harm.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966):

• Aim: To investigate the serial position effect to support for STM and LTM being separate memory stores (Serial position effect is the tendency to recall the first and the last items on a list better than items in the middle).
• Method: Experiment
• Procedure and participants: 240 army men were to memorize lists of words followed by a free-recall task. There were 2 conditions:
  • 1st condition: Participants were presented with recordings of 20-word lists of common one-syllable nouns. Immediately after hearing the words, they were to do a free-recall task for two minutes
  • 2nd condition: The researchers added a delay between the end of the list and the start of the recall task. In the delay, participants engaged in a filler task: Counting backwards from a given number for 30 seconds, which is to prevent rehearsal.
• Results: Results of both the trials demonstrated serial position effect in both its aspects: participants were better at remembering words at the start of the list (primacy effect) and at the end of the list (recency effect).
• Strengths:
  • Replicability: The findings of the study have been replicated in various experiments throughout the years
  • Controlled experimental design: This study was well controlled, with a reliable procedure to measure the variables in an accurate manner
• Limitations:
  • Ecological validity: The study was conducted in a laboratory setting using artificial (Made-up) stimuli (lists of words).
  • Participants may have guessed the purpose of the study, leading to biased responses
• Ethical considerations/concerns: No major ethical concerns. Participants were provided informed consent, debriefed, and protected from mental/physical harm.

The Working Memory Model!!!

The multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the amount of research it generated. However, as a result, there were a number of problems regarding this model, especially concerning the short-term memory store.

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of the short-term memory provided by the multi-store model is far too simple. To which, they proposed the Working Memory Model.

The Short Term Memory according to the Multi-store model holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with little processing. (It is a unitary system). Whereas Working Memory Model is a multi-component system (auditory and visual). Therefore, whereas short-term memory can only hold information, working memory can both retain and process information

Working memory is basically just short-term memory. However, instead of all information going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information:

• Central Executive: Drives the whole system (Boss of working memory). Allocates data to the subsystems: The phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
  • Also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving.
• Visuospatial Sketchpad (inner eye): Stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form.
  • Example: Used for navigation
• Phonological loop: Deals with spoken and written material. It is subdivided into the phonological store and the articulatory processes
  • Phonological store (inner ear): Processes speech perception and stores spoken words we hear for 1-2 seconds
  • Articulatory control process: Processes speech production, rehearses and stores verbal information from the phonological store.

• Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from the other components and also links this information to long-term memory structures.

Supporting studies on the working memory model

Conrad and Hull (1964):

• Aim: To investigate the phonological similarity effect
• Method: Experiment
• Procedure and participants: 28 college students from the University of Illinois were required to recall a sequence of six letters presented either visually or auditorily. Some were phonologically similar (i.e. B, D, C, G, P) while others were not (i.e. F, H, P, R, X). After each sequence, participants were asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
• Results: Rhyming lists were more difficult to remember. This is because the traces of similarly sounding letters (if they are encoded acoustically) are easier to confuse with each other. This supports the idea that memory for speech material uses a sound-based storage system which we now know as the phonological store.
• Strengths:
  • Replicability: if a study’s results can be replicated by independent researchers, it provides evidence for the reliability of the findings
  • Replicability: if a study’s results can be replicated by independent researchers, it provides evidence for the reliability of the findings
• Limitations:
  • Limited generalizability: The study only used college students as participants
  • Confounding variables: Factors such as individual differences in auditory and visual processing abilities, attention span, were not controlled
• Ethical considerations/concerns: No major ethical concerns. Participants were provided informed consent, debriefed, and protected from mental/physical harm.

Sample Questions!!!

Q1. Describe one model of memory, (Short Answer Questions (SAQ)) (9 marks)

• Introduction
  • Start with a general definition of memory
  • Follow up with the scientific definition of memory
  • Next, define models of memory and list the two models
  • Decide on which model of memory you would like to discuss (i.e. Working memory model)
  • Effectively describe this model
• Study
  • As always, by this order: (Researchers names and year, aim, method, participants and procedure, results)
• Conclusion
  • Conclude by referring to your introduction and how the study has supported this claim, then follow up by connecting to the bigger picture of memory for a strong ending.

Q2. Discuss one or more studies of memory (Extended Response Questions (ERQ)) (22 marks)

• Introduction
  • Same as the introduction for SAQ. However, you will have to describe both the models and their functions
• Study #1
  • I suggest start with a study from the multi-store memory model
  • Then of course AMPRCE (Aim, Method, Participants & Procedure, Results, Evaluation(Strengths and weaknesses))
  • Then, conclude with what insights the study has given overall regarding the topic
• Mediating paragraph
  • Introduce the working memory model, and how it is a better replacement for the short-term memory store within the multi-store memory model
• Study #2
  • Use a study that supports the claims of the working memory model
  • Then of course AMPRCE
  • Conclude with what insights this study has given to support the model and how it proves to be a better version of the short term memory
• Ethical concerns and considerations
  • I believe it is better to put the ethical concerns and considerations after both the studies as it may potentially ruin the flow of the entire essay
• Conclusion
  • Finally, refer back to the information you have mentioned in the introduction and show how these two studies have supported your claims and have aided readers in the understanding of memory.
  • Connect the whole thing to the bigger picture of memory in its real life setting. End on a powerful note!
    

Woohoo!!! We are done! Let us manifest to get a 7 for IB Psychology!!

Want to learn cultural influences on individual attitudes under the sociocultural approach to behavior? Click here!

Wanna see another post made by this super cool author, Keitaro? (Jokes) Here’s one on math AAHL!

Bibliography:

• https://www.themantic-education.com/ibpsych/2021/10/04/the-multi-store-model-of-memory-atkinson-and-shiffrin-1968/
• https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/nervous/five-senses
• https://pin.it/ByjZUNDMq
• https://pin.it/5tGZfsSqD
• https://pin.it/58utqc7Q8
• https://pin.it/dTLKrwXwl